17th century, the golden age of watchmaking (part 3)

By: Sílvio Pereira

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With this article we conclude a series of three articles devoted to the history and the extraordinary importance of the 17th century in the evolution of watchmaking. Although less important than the English and French watchmaking of this century, Genevan and Dutch watchmaking were also a reference in this period, mainly in the innovative use of enamel and in the construction and decoration of cases, in the case of Geneva, and in the construction and artistic decoration of balance cocks, in the case of the Netherlands.

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Genevan watchmaking

Geneva, once part of the Kingdom of Burgundy, then conquered by the Germans and ruled by the House of Savoy, fought for a long time for its independence. In 1387 Bishop Adhémar Fabry granted the town its great charter of franchises, the basis of its communal autonomy. Even so, the House of Savoy repelled the attempts at invasion in the continuing struggle for independence. Finally, on 20.2.1526 Geneva signed a treaty of alliance with Fribourg and Bern, thus joining the Swiss Confederation. The Protestant leader John Calvin lived in Geneva from 1536 until his death in 1564 (except during a forced exile from 1538 to 1541) and became the spiritual leader of the city, a post created by the Great Council when the city converted to Protestantism. Over the following centuries, Geneva became the continental city to which the largest number of Protestants flocked, especially refugees from France.

Many of these refugees were watchmakers who had learned their craft in Paris, Limoges, Rouen or Blois.

Around 1630 Geneva became one of the most prolific producers of watches and, above all, of enamelled cases. This specialisation, incorporating the respective styles over time, continued with some interruptions until the end of the 18th century. During the 17th century, well-known watchmakers worked in Geneva, such as Jean Rousseau and his apprentice Jean-François Lachis. Jean Rousseau was the great-grandfather of the man who would become one of the best-known philosophers in history: Jean-Jacques Rousseau (28.6.1712–2.7.1778). In his writings, Rousseau mentions that he used to visit his father Isaac Rousseau in his watchmaker's workshop, where he would take watches apart and put them back together.

Pierre I Huaud (Huaud le Père, 1612 – 1680)

Huaud le Père, Musée de l’horlogerie et de l’émaillerie, Geneva

The Huauds are the best-known and most prolific family of enamel painters of their time. They descended from a family of goldsmiths in Châtellerault, France. The father, Pierre Huaud I, was a Protestant who emigrated to Geneva, where he became a “Genevan” in 1630. He completed his training as a goldsmith with Laurent Légaré in 1634 and, shortly afterwards, became a master goldsmith. In 1661 he trained in enamel painting with Jean André. Pierre Huaud I made remarkable use of the pointillist technique of painting on enamel, a technique he used for all the subjects he depicted. Indeed, this may be considered the main innovation attributed to him. This technique, with superimposed dots of contrasting colours, made it possible to create scenes of greater volume and depth. The pointillist technique was practised by some artists in Blois and Paris, but it was used sparingly, only for faces, in order to enhance the delicacy of the features or to highlight certain Mannerist touches. It was a fine and subtle stippling, almost imperceptible, in which one could admire the purity and delicacy of the line. Pierre I specialised in enamel watchcases in which the central scene is a portrait, framed by a usually oval medallion and surrounded by garlands, mainly in black and white, of intertwined flowers and scrollwork typical of the mid-17th century. His three sons also became enamel painters.

Pierre II Huaud (Huaud l'Aîné, 2.2.1647 – c.1698)

He was apprenticed to his father. Drawing on the pointillist technique his father used and, being extremely gifted artistically, he painted many mythological and historical scenes, such as 'The Judgement of Paris', 'The Abduction of Helen', 'Roman Charity' and 'Cleopatra'. In 1685/6 he went to Berlin to work in the service of the Brandenburg court.

Pierre II Huaud - Musée de l’horlogerie et de l’émaillerie, Geneva

After a brief stay there, he returned to Geneva in 1686. Pierre II went back to Germany at the end of 1689 and, in 1691, was appointed miniature painter to Frederick I. Pierre II was the most talented of the three sons, yet only a few watchcases bearing his signature are known (most of them are unsigned). Two examples of signed cases are in a public collection in Switzerland, and a third is in the Frick Collection in New York. Pierre II signed his work in various ways: 'P. Huaud l'aisné pinxit a Geneve', 'Petrus Mayor Natus Pinxit Geneva', 'Huaud l'aisne pinxit a Geneve', 'P. Huaud P. a G' or simply 'P. Huault'. The signature is often placed in a cartouche on the side, below the VI; it is rarely found in the centre of the dial. His unsigned works can be distinguished from those of his brothers by their better quality and the greater precision of the enamelling. In addition, he continued to use the black-and-white elements typical of his father's work, incorporating them as separators between the usual landscape scenes on the rim of the cases. The three sons, like their father, were inspired by the same subjects: Greek mythology, paintings by Peter Paul Rubens (28.6.1577 – 30.5.1640), nature and architecture.

Jean-Pierre Huaud (Huaud le Puîné, 1655 – 1723) and his brother Ami Huaud (9.8.1657 – 16.11.1724)

They were partners from 1682 to 1688. Both of them, as well as their elder brother, were appointed painters to the Brandenburg Court in 1686 and moved to Berlin, where they lived and worked until 1700, when they returned to Geneva. Although much of their work was done in partnership, they also often worked alone.

Jean-Pierre Huaud - Musée de l’horlogerie et de l’émaillerie, Geneva

When working alone, Jean-Pierre signed: 'Huaud le Puîné', 'P • Huaud L 'aisne pinxit a Genève or 'Huaud Le puisné fecit'. When working together, the two brothers signed: 'Les •f• Huaut' , 'L. deux frères Huaut les jeunes' or 'Les deux frère Huaut pintre deSon A[ltesse] • [l']E[lecteur] de B[randebourg] • a berlin'.

The work of the Huaud family was sought after by watchmakers throughout Europe. The watchmakers ordered the cases and then built the watches to fit them. After the invention of the balance spring in 1675, when the old movements became obsolete, the older cases were still valued to such an extent that, for many of them, the owners ordered a new movement already fitted with a balance spring. The Huauds created a true school of painting on enamel. Their work and reputation helped to popularise the art throughout the world. As happened with Blois and Limoges, the characteristics of this type of painting on enamel led to it being named after its city of origin: ‘Email de Genève’.

Pierre II Huaud, Geneva, 1675

Pierre II Huaud case, Geneva, 1675

Gold case (40 mm in diameter) enamelled on the back with a scene representing 'The Judgement of Paris' after an engraving by Antoine de Fer (died 1673) and after a painting by Laurent de la Hyre (27.2.1606 – 28.12.1656), which he painted after a painting by Peter Paul Rubens (c. 1636). The rim is enamelled with vignettes of idyllic landscapes separated by black-and-white scrolls. The inside of the case is enamelled with a view of an imaginary village surrounded by tall trees, with a bridge over a river (the Rhône?) and a person wearing a hat. In the background one can see what appears to be Lake Geneva and the Franco-Italian Alps. The enamelling has survived in very good condition; only small rubs on the surfaces, a few small cracks and a small loss of enamel are visible. The pendant and the bow are in good condition and have a slightly darker appearance than the case; this is due to the heating of the gilded case during the firing of the enamel. This procedure makes the gold look slightly lighter. This case was very probably made for the English market, judging by the shape of the pendant.

The Judgement of Paris, P. P. Rubens, c. 1636, National Gallery, London

According to the literature, fewer than 100 cases enamelled by a member of the Huaud family survive (most of the surviving ones were made by Jean-Pierre and Ami), most of them in public collections such as the Louvre (Paris), British Museum, Victoria and Albert Museum (London), Uhrenmuseum Beyer (Zurich), Frick Collection, Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York), Haus zum Kirschgarten (Dr E. Gschwind collection, Basel), International Watch Museum (La Chaux-de-Fonds), Musée d'horlogerie (Le Locle), Patek Philippe Museum and Musée de l'horlogerie et de l'émaillerie (Geneva).

It should be noted that on 24.11.2002 several important pieces were stolen from the 'Musée de l'horlogerie et de l'émaillerie' in Geneva (among them, 9 pieces with cases enamelled by the Huaud family). It is important to point out that the purchase of stolen cultural property is prohibited by international law (UNESCO Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property, 1970).

Jean Rousseau (1606-1684)

Jean II Rousseau was the second of a dynasty of watchmakers based in Geneva from 1630, when he fled from France to Geneva, which had become the haven of French Protestants in retreat. Jean Rousseau became famous for making fine watches in refined cases, many of them decorated by the celebrated Huaud family, but also form watches, like his father, as well as complicated and astronomical watches. He had 12 children, 5 of whom followed him into the business; the best known are Jacques, David and André Rousseau. A well-known apprentice of Jean Rousseau was Jean-François Lachis, who became a famous watchmaker in his own right.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

David Rousseau (1641-1738) took over his father's business in Geneva, which he later passed on to his son Isaac Rousseau (1672 – 1747), father of the well-known philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau (28.6.1712 – 2.7.1778).

André Rousseau was sent to Hamburg (Germany) to serve an apprenticeship as a goldsmith and continued to work there. Jacques Rousseau was to represent the family business in England, settling in London, the world centre of watchmaking at the time. He fought hard to win contracts with local watchmakers such as Tompion, Windmills, Quare and others. The other two sons, Noël and Louys Rousseau, also entered the business, but information about their work is scarce.

The largest collection, of more than twenty watches with movements made by the Rousseau family, can be admired at the Patek Philippe Museum in Geneva.

Jean-François Lachis, (30.9.1627 – 4.11.1699)

Jean-François Lachis was an apprentice of Jean Rousseau and married one of his daughters, Clermonde Rousseau, in 1657. Together with Jean Rousseau, he was also the master of David Rousseau, Jean's son, who continued his father's business in Geneva.

Movement made by Jean-François Lachis in 1685

Gilt brass, early "onion"-type movement, hand-wound from the front, with a single hand. Large four-armed steel balance without a balance spring or balance bridge (cock). Small silvered regulator and crown-wheel (verge) escapement. Backplate signed 'François Lachis'. Long round baluster pillars. Chain, dial and dial plate missing. Motion work for a single hour hand.

Jacques (Jacob) Rousseau, London, No. 1738, 1690

Movement made by Jacques Rousseau in 1690

Gilt brass, mainspring hand-wound through the backplate, typical of English manufacture. Brass balance without a balance spring. Single-footed cock without jewels. Tompion regulator and verge escapement. Backplate signed 'Ja(cque)s Rousseau, London, No. 1738'. Egyptian pillars with silver crowns. Chain, dial and dial plate missing, as well as the motion work.

Although made in London, this movement should be presented as inspired by Genevan manufacture, because of the connection with Jean-Jacques Rousseau and also because many English-style watches were made in Geneva as copies of London work. This is one of the few movements we know of that bear the signature of Jacques Rousseau.

Jacques Rousseau learned the lapidary's art before being sent to London by his father. One of his grandsons, Samuel Rousseau (1763 – 1820), was a British orientalist scholar and printer. He compiled the first Arabic-English dictionary and translated and printed the first English editions of several important Arabic works.

Two-footed cock

French-style two-footed cock (35.5 mm maximum diameter, 37.7 mm between fixing holes), decorated with symmetrical arabesques, two dolphins, geometric and architectural elements and filigree work typical of the French Louis XIV style. The only feature that reveals it as made in Geneva is the anticlockwise scale showing the tension of the balance spring (1-8), whose mechanism differed from the one used in France and was used exclusively in Geneva.

Watchmaking in the Low Countries

Although one of the most important inventions in watchmaking, the balance spring, can very probably be attributed to a Dutchman, Christiaan Huygens, watchmaking there was rather limited and confined to the large cities such as Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague. Moreover, the typical Dutch pocket watch was only produced from about 1685 to 1750. Compared with the English or French watch, the Dutch watch had a unique type of cock, two-footed like the French one, but much wider. Many watches feature a 'false pendulum', that is, a pendulum with a projection that appears through an oblong, curved aperture. The purpose of this construction was to give the impression that the pocket watch was fitted with a real pendulum, suggesting a high-precision piece. Other characteristics of Dutch watches are the pillars, sometimes very elaborate, probably to distinguish them from English or French watches and to impose a 'Dutch style'. In addition, Dutch customers were very fond of complications visible on the dial, and many of the early Dutch watches had a calendar or day/night function. Most of the dials (silver champlevé or gold, and later enamelled) show another Dutch speciality: the 'wavy' minute markers, later sometimes combined with a central enamelled scene of everyday life (countryside, ships, landscapes). This last feature was later adopted in English and French watches as well. Many Dutch-style watches were also made in Geneva with a false 'London' attribution for the Dutch and Scandinavian markets.

Two-footed cock - Holland, 1690 - private collection, Lille (F)

Silver, highly decorated with a mythological scene. Diameter 33mm (43mm with feet). Hole for the winding arbor integrated into the cock. It depicts a naked, voluptuous Venus, reclining, surrounded by flowers. A fine veil seems to mould the harmonious shapes of her body. In her left hand she holds an apple (a symbol of fertilising power) offered to her by a goat-featured satyr carrying a basket of fruit. This satyr represents Pan, the god of fertility and sexual power. Above the scene, a cupid protects them with bow and arrow. At the top, two doves represent love in marriage.

Venus is the goddess of beauty and love. She was created from a drop of blood of Uranus, when he was mutilated by Cronus. This blood fertilised the water and Venus rose from the foam of a white wave. As goddess of love, her powers are immense; she represents two facets of love: one is the loving protector of marriage, the other the unstoppable passion. She is married to the god Hephaestus, but often betrays him with other gods or even with mortals.

This type of cock is shown in Tardy's book (‘les coqs de montres du Mont Saint Michel’), which describes the collection of watch cocks of ‘Mont St.Michel’ in Normandy, France. This example is considered the most beautiful of Dutch watch cocks.