The 18th century, the century of the great watchmakers (Part 6)
By: Sílvio Pereira
In this sixth part of our series of articles on the history of watchmaking and watchmakers in the 18th century, the second devoted exclusively to French watchmaking, we examine the life and work of that great master watchmaker, Ferdinand Berthoud. Particularly noteworthy is the extraordinary contribution he made to the development of many horological techniques, such as marine chronometers, but also the grand complications, especially those linked to the equation of time. During his lifetime, Berthoud wrote and published some of the most important treatises on watchmaking, becoming one of the great disseminators of the techniques and trends that were developing over the course of that century.
Ferdinand Berthoud 18.03.1727 – 20.06.1807
Ferdinand Berthoud, born in Plancemont, Switzerland, was the son of Judith and Jean Berthoud, an architect by training and a carpenter by vocation.
From childhood he showed an early interest in watchmaking, beginning a four-year apprenticeship with his elder brother, Jean Jacques, in March 1741.
With an exceptional recommendation from his brother, Berthoud travelled to Paris in 1745 to refine his natural talent.
Thanks to his brother's influence, Berthoud quickly built a remarkable reputation in Paris from 1753 onwards. He stood out as one of the leading watchmakers of the age, praised for his ability to create high-precision timepieces, attracting lavish praise and prestigious clients.
In 1753, Berthoud built a longcase clock with equation of time, which earned him the support of the Royal Academy of Sciences on behalf of King Louis XV. It was a rare honour that allowed him to become a master despite not being a French citizen, and it was granted to Berthoud in November of the same year. He then opened a workshop in the Rue du Harlay which, by coincidence, was the same street where Julien Le Roy also had his.
In 1754, Berthoud submitted a project to the Royal Academy of Sciences that included a marine chronometer, marking the first recorded mention of his efforts to solve the problem of longitude. However, the machine itself was never recorded.
Together with Julien Le Roy, Pierre Le Roy and Jean Romilly, Berthoud was invited to contribute to Diderot and d'Alembert's Encyclopédie in 1755.
His first book on watchmaking was published in 1759.
At one point, Berthoud considered patenting his new invention of temperature compensation for the balance spring. However, he discovered that such a system had already been invented by John Jefferys, who, together with John Harrison, was about to develop the most accurate watch known up to that time.
At the beginning of 1761, Berthoud presented his first Marine Clock, known as number one, but unfortunately it did not work properly.
In a letter he wrote to Pierre Jaquet Droz in 1763, Berthoud expressed his admiration for Henry Sully and Julien Le Roy, especially regarding the use and development of the techniques they had developed.
That same year, Berthoud was charged by the king with examining Harrison's H4. However, his journey to London in May 1763 was in vain, as Harrison refused to show the H4 to Berthoud. Nevertheless, after his return to Paris, the British Royal Academy of Sciences elected Berthoud a foreign member with effect from 16 February 1764, which further raised his international reputation in the field of precision watchmaking. Daniel Bernoulli, a respected Swiss mathematician and physicist and a member of the French elite, also supported Berthoud's election.
At the beginning of 1766, Berthoud returned to London with the aim of finally seeing the H4. Harrison asked for 4,000 pounds in return for revealing the secrets of the H4, but Berthoud arrived with only 500 pounds.
Despite Harrison's repeated refusals, Berthoud was not discouraged and invited Thomas Mudge to dinner, since Mudge, as a member of the disclosure panel of the Board of Longitude, had privileged information about the H4. Over dinner, Mudge shared with Berthoud everything he knew about this watch, intending to act in the interest of the Board, which believed that knowledge should be disseminated.
Although Mudge acted in the interest of the Board, his actions ran counter to Harrison's interests. Even so, Berthoud seemed satisfied with the information he received, although he still had no access to the H4. Fortunately for Harrison, Berthoud was unable to make good use of the information provided by Mudge.
During his trip, Berthoud had the opportunity to see the tools used by British specialists in the construction of marine chronometers. He tried to acquire them for himself through the king's patronage.
Berthoud and Pierre Le Roy were rivals in the attempts to create a reliable marine chronometer for determining longitude at sea. Although both succeeded in developing accurate chronometers, they chose different approaches. Berthoud used a spring-based design, while Le Roy adopted a pendulum-based design.
At the end of the 18th century, two of Berthoud's chronometers, designated number 6 and number 8, together with a chronometer made by Le Roy, were subjected to trials in two phases. These trials took place between 1768 and 1772. The results showed that both Berthoud's chronometers and Le Roy's were highly accurate and reliable.
Although Le Roy's system was considered more reliable, Berthoud's watch number 8 gave a performance regarded as flawless in every respect.
Owing to unfortunate circumstances, Berthoud gained an advantage that secured him the title, on 1 April 1770, of “Mechanical Clockmaker” to the King and the Navy, in recognition of his work.
Le Roy could not match Berthoud's persuasive skill, despite having publicly criticised the latter's work. Le Roy chose to withdraw completely from the competition.
Berthoud produced 75 marine chronometers over a period of 35 years. Pierre Le Roy's pioneering work on marine chronometers was long neglected, until interest and research in the history of watchmaking at the end of the 19th century restored his well-deserved reputation.
At the end of the 18th century, Berthoud's work was continued by his nephew Louis Berthoud (1754 – 1813), who had become his apprentice in 1769, at the age of 15. In 1770, Ferdinand Berthoud decided to concentrate exclusively on the production of marine chronometers, leaving to his nephew the production of simple watches for private clients.
Berthoud carried out comprehensive studies on precision timekeeping, addressing questions such as the different types of escapement, including the cylinder, the detent and the anchor, as well as investigating the problem of friction, the isochronism of the twin balance, thermal compensation and the indication of true and mean time. The main aim of this research was to improve the accuracy of marine clocks and their civilian equivalents.
Berthoud built simpler, more affordable watches as a source of funding for studies and research into marine chronometers. In 1775, he handed over the management of the workshop to his nephew Henry Berthoud, Louis's brother. Unfortunately, Henry's leadership was disastrous, culminating in his tragic death by suicide on 29 June 1783. His reckless management left behind a significant debt of 60,000 livres.
After Henry's death, Ferdinand's nephew Louis Berthoud took over the running of the workshop in 1784. As a result of this transition, the workshop was reduced in size and some areas of work were subcontracted to other workshops. Nevertheless, Ferdinand and Louis Berthoud remained responsible for the final finishing of the movements.
It is interesting to note that only around 1787 did Louis Berthoud obtain permission to sign his own work, which indicates that he had not previously been properly recognised. Despite his substantial contributions, Louis harboured a lasting resentment towards Ferdinand for not receiving due recognition, a feeling that endured throughout his life.
It is worth emphasising that Louis Berthoud was appointed "Clockmaker to the Imperial Navy" by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1802, an appointment made in preference to Abraham Louis Breguet. This choice may have been influenced by an unfavourable experience the Emperor had with a perpetual repeating watch (No. 216) bought from Breguet for his "Egyptian campaign" in 1798, which did not withstand the sand. In addition, it is rumoured that a Breguet jumping-hour model[1] made Napoleon miss an important meeting, which supposedly irritated him to the point of smashing the watch to pieces.
Ferdinand Berthoud is known for adopting a distinctive approach when signing his horological creations. He reserved the full signature, “Ferdinand Berthoud”, for the most remarkable and meticulously crafted pieces. These were generally the pieces to which he devoted the greatest attention and which represented true masterpieces of his career.
The full signature had several connotations:
· Mark of Excellence: When a watchmaker signed a piece with his full name, it indicated that the work was exceptional and deserved special prominence.
· Value and Prestige: The presence of the full signature increased the value of the watch, making it more desirable to collectors and connoisseurs.
· History and Authenticity: Watches signed with Ferdinand Berthoud's full name had a direct link to his remarkable career and contribution to watchmaking.
On the other hand, less significant pieces, or those produced or finished later in his workshop, especially after 1770, were usually signed “Fd. Berthoud”. It is worth noting that many watches labelled only “Berthoud à Paris” without a number are often considered contemporary forgeries, particularly if they do not show distinct authentic characteristics. However, there are some exceptions; some original watches were signed in this way.
Ferdinand Berthoud was a watchmaker of modest and humble nature throughout his life. His devotion to the art of watchmaking and his remarkable contributions were recognised in 1802, when Napoleon Bonaparte made him a Knight of the Legion of Honour. This prestigious recognition reflected the French Empire's appreciation of his exemplary work.
Berthoud spent the last days of his life in his small residence in Groslay, near Montmorency, north of Paris. He died at the age of 80 in 1807, leaving behind a lasting legacy that continues to inspire and influence watchmaking to this day.
Ferdinand Berthoud's legacy is held at the Musée du Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers, Paris
Ferdinand Berthoud's workshop received the royal patronage of Louis XVI in 1782.
He was granted permission to continue his research on marine chronometers and to use the premises and resources provided by the monarch. However, it is important to stress that the workshop and all its contents remained the property of the king.
After the master watchmaker's death in 1807, the entire contents of the workshop were transferred to the Musée du Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers in Paris.
This museum, founded in 1794, houses and conserves these valuable treasures to the present day.
Visitors can admire most of the marine chronometers, as well as the tools and the workbench, in a permanent exhibition that preserves the exceptional legacy of this remarkable craftsman.
Ferdinand Berthoud, Paris, No. 649, 1768
Gilt brass watch with front winding, fusée and quarter-repeating movement with two hammers “à toc”, the dial plate measuring 40.0 mm in diameter.
The regulator dial is silvered, and the regulator hand is in blued steel, adding a touch of sophistication.
It has very small round baluster pillars, and the back plate bears the engraving “Ferdinand Berthoud A PARIS” with the number “649”.
The dial rim is skilfully decorated with geometric figures and bears the signature “Ferdinand Berthoud”.
The enamelled copper dial is adorned with Arabic numerals, with the “fleur-de-lis” and line indexes, and also includes the full signature “Ferdinand Berthoud”.
Notably, the counter-enamel bears the signature “Coteau”.
It should be mentioned that the fusée chain is missing.
This piece belongs to the critical period of Berthoud's attempts to create marine chronometers, specifically models 6 and 8.
The movement was dated with the help of number 417, an experimental piece belonging to the British Museum, which bears the signature “Ferdinand Berthoud inv. e fecit. 1763” on the dial plate.
However, dating it precisely can be challenging, owing to the complexity of the case markings, as cases were often combined with movements from different periods. In addition, movements were often stored in packaging for several years before being sold.
This image shows a high-quality repeating chronometer, full of attributes reminiscent of Julien Le Roy's famous workshop.
One of its distinctive features is the signature delicately engraved on the edge of the dial plate, a hallmark of the excellence of Julien Le Roy's workshop.
In addition, the repeating mechanism, one of the highlights of this watch, is discreetly located beneath the dial, also a typical trait of the pieces produced by this illustrious workshop.
The dial is a masterpiece in its own right, held firmly in place by a meticulously crafted screw. On it, the Arabic numerals, inspired by the elegant style of Jean Antoine Lépine, bear witness to the attention to detail that defines Berthoud's work. Lépine, like Berthoud, was a demanding judge of new types of escapement, preferring the proven reliability of the verge escapement[2].
It is notable that later movements of the same type of watch were fitted with a brass cylinder escapement and centre seconds, suggesting an adaptation to the precision and style of the famous British chronometers.
Ferdinand Berthoud, a renowned watchmaker, left behind a legacy of limited production of pocket chronometers, often in collaboration with his talented apprentice, Jean Martin.
However, Berthoud paved the way for his nephew, Louis Berthoud, who became a prolific maker of marine chronometers.
Although Berthoud's workshop produced some remarkable pieces, few have survived the passage of time. Rarer still are pieces bearing Berthoud's full signature, found mainly in major public collections.
Joseph Coteau 1740 – 1812
Joseph Coteau, one of the most prestigious enamellers of his day, gained recognition for supplying high-quality dials to France's leading watchmakers, including Robert Robin, Ferdinand Berthoud and Dieudonné Kinable. Although he was born in Geneva, he later settled in France, where he developed his talent as a painter on enamel and porcelain. This talent led to his being received as master painter and enameller at the Académie de Saint-Luc in Geneva, reaching that rank in 1766.
In 1772, Coteau founded his own workshop in the Rue Poupée in Paris and, six years later, was officially granted the title of master. In addition to creating exceptional enamelled dials, he also excelled as a skilled miniaturist. Coteau developed an innovative method of enamelling with gold detail, a remarkable achievement.
Indeed, historical documents from Sèvres highlight the contribution of Coteau and Parpette, another artist at the factory, to the introduction of the technique of jewelled enamelling, which involved the use of enamelled gold leaf, on both soft-paste and hard-paste porcelain. Coteau also ventured into various polychrome techniques, managing to create rare shades of blue that were very difficult to reproduce, something few of his contemporaries could match.
In recognition of his talent, Joseph Coteau was appointed enamel painter to the King and to the Royal Manufactory of Sèvres in 1780. However, in 1784, disagreements arose between Coteau and Sèvres over matters of payment, which led to the termination of his contract.
It is worth noting that, although his output was considerable, we are not aware of Coteau having produced enamelled dials for watches (apart from the example presented here) or small-scale pieces.
Coteau tended to specialise in larger and technically more complex works, although he faced the challenge of shrinkage during the firing process.
Napoleon Bonaparte, in his role as Emperor of France, set high standards for men in society. Besides his remarkable military leadership, he had a grand vision for France and actively supported the development of talented artists and craftsmen. Among these craftsmen, Joseph Coteau stood out, earning Bonaparte's high regard for his exceptional skill in decorating the Emperor's personal objects.
After his service for Napoleon, Coteau continued his career and had the distinct honour of working for Elisa Bonaparte, the Emperor's younger sister. Elisa, who became Princess of Lucca and Piombino and later Grand Duchess of Tuscany, was the only one of Napoleon's sisters to wield political power.
Ferdinand Berthoud, Paris, No. 2078, 1770
This exquisite gilt brass watch has front winding and a fusée movement, with an impressive diameter of 35.4 mm.
The regulator dial is meticulously made in silver, complemented by a steel regulator hand.
It also has elegant round pillars, which add a touch of refinement to the structure.
The distinguished back plate is signed "Berthoud A Paris", revealing the origin and the craftsmanship behind this piece.
The dial, for its part, is a true work of art in enamelled copper, decorated with silver bosses set with small diamonds, with the exception of two of them, between the hours.
This singular example is identified by the signature "Berthoud A PARIS".
The counter[3] in enamel bears the number “2078”, giving it even more exclusivity and value.
The watch in question is considered a rarity because it is attributed to Ferdinand Berthoud's workshop. The remarkable quality of its manufacture surpasses even almost identical contemporary pieces produced by Jean Antoine Lépine. However, it is essential to point out that, without the number on the enamel counter, it could easily be mistaken for a contemporary forgery. This is because the signature is neither “Fd. Berthoud” nor “Ferdinand Berthoud”.
The combination of exceptional build quality and the numbering provides convincing evidence for a positive attribution. At the time this movement was produced, the workshop was run by Henry Berthoud, although other outside workshops also supplied parts and labour for the production of simpler watches. Nevertheless, it is unlikely that Ferdinand Berthoud was directly involved in making these simpler watches at that time.
The ledger of Berthoud's workshop is preserved at the "Conservatoire National des Arts et Métiers" in Paris.
Daniel – Henry & Jonas Berthoud (Berthoud frères), Paris, No. 2336, 1789
This gilt brass watch is a full-plate[4] piece with front winding and a fusée movement which, unfortunately, is of mediocre quality. The lack of balance in the composition of the dial is evident, and the work on the movement leaves much to be desired. What catches the eye is the signature on the back plate, which proudly declares "Fr. Berthoud à Paris, number 2336".
Despite its limitations in quality, there is a certain intrinsic beauty in the making of this watch, although the final finish may be considered disappointing. This example was produced in the workshop founded in 1786 by two distant cousins of Ferdinand Berthoud, who also made watches for Ferdinand Berthoud's main workshop.
Interestingly, once these watches were completed, they were signed "Fd. Berthoud". Later, Louis Berthoud's sons, Charles Auguste and Louis Simon Henri Berthoud, succeeded to the family business and also signed their own works with the distinctive "Fd. Berthoud". However, it is important to note that the movement of this particular watch dates from a period before these changes of signature.
Louis Berthoud, Paris, No. 2520, 1793
Gilt brass watch with a “full-plate” case, fitted with a steel cylinder movement and measuring 47.5 mm in diameter.
The movement has a three-arm brass balance, complemented by a blued steel balance spring.
The balance is skilfully held by a single bridge with a delicate steel cock, which incorporates a precious sapphire stone at its end.
Notably, this piece has a fusée system inspired by the maintaining power developed by Harrison.
As for the dial, it is made of enamelled copper and bears elegant Roman numerals.
A distinctive feature is the subsidiary seconds dial positioned at 6 o'clock. The dial is adorned with the signature “L(oui)s BERTHOUD” at 12 o'clock.
The hour indicator is an elegant flat “Breguet”-style hand in blued steel. However, the minute and seconds hands are missing.
The back plate prominently displays the inscription “Louis Berthoud A PARIS”, followed by the number “2520”.
This example is a rare piece, a true treasure among the simple watch movements produced by Louis Berthoud. What makes this watch even more fascinating is the presence of one of the innovations most widely adopted by John Harrison for pocket watches in England: “Harrison's maintaining power”. This singular feature allows the watch to keep running without the need for constant winding, representing a notable advance for the time. Interestingly, this is the only known example in French watchmaking to incorporate this exceptional feature.
The date of this watch is confirmed by number 2521. This is a quarter-repeating pocket watch, a true chronometer. This remarkable piece was sold to Monsieur Blanchard de Pigon on 20 March 1793.
It is worth noting that this Louis d'Or watch was one of the first French watches to be fitted with pierced rubies, an exceptional advance for the time.
This example was sold at auction at Christie's on 15 June 2011, Lot 153.
Ex private collection Jean – Claude Sabrier (F) *
André – Charles Caron, Paris, No. 408, 1765
Gilt brass watch with front winding, fitted with a fusée movement and 35 mm in diameter.
It has a silver regulator dial and a steel regulator hand, complemented by a medium-sized two-footed steel cock.
It also has round pillars, and on the back plate we find the inscription “Caron A PARIS”, followed by the number “408”.
Unfortunately, the movement, the dial and the hands are missing.
André Charles Caron (26 April 1698 – 23 October 1775) was a master watchmaker, renowned for being the mentor of Jean Antoine Lépine.
The collaboration between Caron and Lépine took place between 1756 and 1769, although Caron's personal life remains largely shrouded in mystery. Of the pieces supposedly co-signed "Caron et Lépine" during this period of partnership, none has been found to date.
In 1756, Lépine married Madeleine Françoise Caron, daughter of André Charles Caron.
Shortly afterwards, in 1759, Jean Antoine Lépine took over Caron's legacy as master watchmaker.
It is interesting to note that André Charles Caron was the father of the famous Pierre Augustin Caron (later de Beaumarchais), a writer and playwright, among other professions.
Pierre – Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais 24. 01. 1732 – 18. 05. 1799
Throughout his life, Pierre Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais took on multiple roles that reflect his remarkable versatility. He was a watchmaker, inventor, playwright, musician, diplomat, spy, publisher, horticulturist, arms dealer, satirist, financier and, not least, a fervent revolutionary involved in both the French Revolution and the American Revolution.
It is important to note that the double virgule escapement was not invented by Jean André Lepaute, but by Beaumarchais in 1753. However, Lepaute, a royal clockmaker in France at the time, was accused of having stolen the idea.
Thanks to a skilfully worded letter, Beaumarchais managed to refute Lepaute's claim, which led the Paris court to rule in his favour. This decision not only brought Beaumarchais to the attention of the court elite of Louis XV, but also allowed him to forge his own reputation as an important watchmaker, thanks to his exceptional writing skills. It is not surprising that his literary talent contributed significantly to building his legendary reputation in the field of watchmaking.
In 1755, Beaumarchais met Madeleine Catherine Aubertin, a widow, whom he married the following year. With her help, he obtained a royal post and left his watchmaking career behind.
*
Jean – Claude Sabrier 1938 – 29.11.2014
Jean Claude Sabrier was a remarkable individual, deeply passionate about the art of watchmaking. His tireless dedication to his work, together with his peculiar and infectious sense of humour, made him a singular figure. As an avid student, he immersed himself in study and, over time, became a collector, dealer and historian of timepieces in all their forms.
His passion for watchmaking ranged from the technical and aesthetic aspects of timepieces to their rich history and evolution through the centuries. With an exceptional ability to unravel intricate mechanisms, Claude became an authority in his field and a true master of the craft. His legacy in watchmaking is undeniable, and his absence will be felt by all those who had the privilege of knowing him.
Sabrier, a descendant of a family of watchmakers, gave up the jewellery trade and set himself up as an antiques dealer in Normandy, where he remained throughout his life. His interest in and knowledge of watchmaking grew over time, making him a widely recognised expert throughout Europe. His expertise in identifying, appraising and authenticating priceless timepieces meant that he was frequently sought out by museums and collectors.
In 1980, Sabrier and Hervé Chayette launched regular auctions devoted exclusively to horology in Paris, following the model of the Sotheby's and Christie's houses in London. These auctions became eagerly awaited events and were held two or three times a year from 1980 to 1988. Sabrier was subsequently invited to work with Sotheby's Europe and later joined Antiquorum, a prestigious Geneva-based company, where he remained until 2000.
The last years of his professional career were devoted to the Swatch Group, where he worked as a consultant on the development of heritage collections, most notably the private Breguet museum.
Alongside his commercial activities, Jean Claude Sabrier combined a passion for historical research, enriching his knowledge of timepieces through texts and objects. He also collaborated actively with several museums, contributing to important exhibitions, such as those devoted to Ferdinand Berthoud in Paris, Besançon and La Chaux-de-Fonds (1984), and to Le Roy in Tours (1987).
Sabrier focused much of his attention on high-precision timekeeping, resulting in meticulous and enduring works, such as the study devoted to Louis Berthoud and Henri Motel (1993), which earned him the recognition of the Académie de Marine. In 1997, he received the Gaïa Prize for his contributions, which cover a variety of works, including the study devoted to Jacques Frédéric Houriet (2006) and his collaboration on the exhibition of Breguet watches at the Hermitage Museum in St Petersburg (2004).
Sabrier also left as his legacy an extensive personal library, full of manuscripts and books on French watchmaking and chronometry. His collection of timepieces, focused on chronometers, was truly impressive, including a large and remarkable variety of automatic watches.
Perhaps one of his most remarkable collections, however, was that of rare, original contemporary “copies” of Breguet's “souscription”[5] watches.
In addition, Sabrier collected general scientific literature and objects related to the problem of longitude and to astronomy, most notably a French “memento mori”[6] watch from the 17th century. His legacy in watchmaking and his tireless dedication to the pursuit of excellence and knowledge will endure as a lasting testament to his passion for and commitment to the art of watchmaking.
Notes:
[1] In a jumping-hour watch, the minute hand moves smoothly, but the hour hand “jumps” from one number to the next without passing through all the intermediate numbers. This allows the time to be read quickly and accurately.
[2] In watchmaking, "verge escapement" refers to a specific type of escapement mechanism found in some mechanical timepieces. The verge escapement is a variation of the anchor escapement, which is a crucial component in regulating the movement of the timepiece. In the verge escapement, instead of a traditional anchor, a rotating disc is used to control the release of energy from the mainspring mechanism. This solution can offer advantages in terms of efficiency and precision, but it is less common than the traditional anchor escapement.
[3] This refers to a sub-marking or additional dial on the watch that displays specific information or performs functions complementary to the main time display. In the context of antique and complicated watches, the counter is usually used to indicate additional functions, such as chronographs, calendars, moon phases and so on.
[4] This refers to the use of a high-quality metal, usually gold or silver, to make a watch case. It means that the watch case is made entirely of that metal, in contrast to gold- or silver-plated cases, which have a thin layer of precious metal over a substrate of a less noble metal such as brass or steel.
[5] These were watches sold on the basis of advance orders or subscriptions, in which prospective buyers committed to purchasing the watch by paying a sum of money, often even before the watch had been made. This system allowed the watchmaker, in this case Breguet, to raise funds to finance the production of the watch before even starting work on it. This financial approach made it possible to create complex and innovative watches that might have been very expensive to produce without the buyers' prior financial support.
These watches were highly coveted because of the watchmaker's reputation for quality and innovation. They often featured advanced technical characteristics and were admired not only for their precision, but also for the innovations in their design and functionality.
[6] “Memento mori” is a Latin expression that can be translated into English as “remember that you will die” or “remember your mortality”. The expression was frequently used in art, literature and visual culture, especially during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, as a reminder of the transience of human life and the inevitability of death. In art, “memento mori” were often depicted through symbolic images such as skulls, hourglasses (sand glasses), lit candles and other elements representing the passing of time and the finitude of life. These visual representations were intended to remind people of the importance of living a virtuous life and preparing themselves spiritually for death. In addition, “memento mori” is also used in a broader context to remind people that life is fleeting and that they should appreciate every moment and live according to values and principles. It is an expression that emphasises the importance of reflecting on one's own mortality as a way of valuing life and its choices.
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