The 18th Century, the Century of the Great Watchmakers (Part 9)
By: Silvio Pereira
In the ninth and penultimate part of this extensive article on the history of watchmaking in the 18th century, known as the century of the Great Watchmakers, we present the first of two sections devoted almost exclusively to the man widely recognised as the master of masters: Abraham-Louis Breguet. Although he drew inspiration from other watchmakers of his time, such as Lepine and Arnold, among others, Breguet had the talent to perfect their ideas and give them a unique character, turning them into creations that were almost exclusively his own. Notable examples include the “Breguet hairspring”, the tourbillon, “Breguet hands and numerals” and the “self-winding system”, among others. We close this part of the article with an introduction to the complex analysis of the “subscription watches”, which, although not invented by Breguet, were masterfully developed and exploited by him.
Happy reading!
French Revolution 1789 – 1799:
Inspired by liberal and radical ideas, the French Revolution profoundly changed the course of modern history, hastening the worldwide decline of theocracies and absolute monarchies and paving the way for the rise of republics and democracies.
Widely regarded by historians as one of the most significant events in human history, the French Revolution remains the subject of intense study and debate.
The causes of the Revolution are intricate and multifaceted. After the Seven Years’ War and the American Revolutionary War, the French government faced a deep financial crisis and tried to restore its stability through unpopular tax schemes. The pressure for change was articulated in the light of Enlightenment ideals, culminating in the convening of the “États-Généraux” in May 1789.
The first year of the Revolution was marked by the rise to power of the members of the Third Estate and by the emblematic storming of the Bastille in July, a crucial turning point that symbolises revolutionary fervour and the collapse of the Ancien Régime.
A central event of the first phase of the French Revolution, in August 1789, was the abolition of feudalism and of the remaining privileges and rules of the “Ancien Régime”. The following years were characterised by intense political struggles between various liberal assemblies and the conservative supporters of the monarchy, who doggedly sought to prevent significant reforms.
The proclamation of the Republic in September 1792, after the decisive French victory at the Battle of Valmy, marked a turning point. The Committee of Public Safety, under the control of Maximilien de Robespierre, a lawyer by training, and the Jacobins, established the Reign of Terror (1793-1794). During this dark period, events of great international repercussion took place, including the execution of Louis XVI in January 1793 and of Marie Antoinette in October.
According to archival records, at least 16,594 people were executed by the guillotine, or by other means, after being accused of counter-revolutionary activities. This period of extreme violence left an indelible mark on the history of the Revolution, reflecting the turmoil and radicalisation of revolutionary ideals.
The modern era developed under the lasting influence of the French Revolution, with almost every subsequent revolutionary movement regarding it as an essential forerunner. Its emblematic phrases and cultural symbols, such as “La Marseillaise” and “Liberté, Egalité, Fraternité”, became rallying calls for other great transformations in modern history, including the Russian Revolution more than a century later.
Beset by accusations of corruption, the Directory collapsed in a coup d’état led by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1799, widely regarded as the end of the revolutionary period. Napoleon, who had emerged as a hero of the Revolution thanks to his victorious military campaigns, established the “Consulate” and, later, the “First Empire”, setting the stage for a series of global conflicts known as the Napoleonic Wars.
Napoleon’s rise and the subsequent expansion of his empire marked a new chapter in European history, reflecting both the continuity and the transformation of the revolutionary ideals first proclaimed by the French Revolution.
The French Republican (or Revolutionary) Calendar (calendrier républicain (révolutionnaire) français) was a calendar system created and implemented during the French Revolution, reflecting the radical transformation of society. It was used by the French government for about 12 years, from late 1793 to 1805, and briefly by the Paris Commune in 1871, for 18 days.
The revolutionary system was designed to remove all religious and monarchical influences from the calendar, as part of a wider attempt to introduce the decimal system in France. The reform covered not only the calendar but also decimal time of day, the conversion of the currency and the adoption of the metric system. The years were redefined, with 1792 designated as Year I, symbolically marking the beginning of a new era of rationality and secularism.
This innovation reflected the spirit of the French Revolution, which sought to break with the past and build a society based on the principles of reason and equality. Although the Republican Calendar was eventually abandoned, it remains a fascinating testimony to the revolutionary ambition to restructure every aspect of social and political life.
In 1788, Claude Boniface Collignon proposed a radical reconfiguration of the day, dividing it into 10 hours, or 1,000 minutes, each new hour into 100 minutes, each new minute into 1,000 seconds and each new second into 1,000 thirds (from the Latin “tertius”). During the French Revolution a variant of this decimal time was officially introduced. Jean-Charles de Borda presented a proposal for decimal time on 5 November 1792, and the National Convention issued a decree on 5 October 1793 for its implementation.
Although clocks, watches and dials were made with a dual indication of standard time (numbered 1 to 24) and decimal time (numbered 1 to 10), the decimal time system was never widely adopted. It was officially used from the beginning of Republican Year III, on 22 September 1794, but its compulsory use was suspended on 7 April 1795 in the Gregorian calendar (18 Germinal Year III[1]), in the same legislation that introduced the original metric system.
Besides decimal time, the dials of watches incorporated emblematic symbols of the revolutionary movement, such as the tricolour flag, the Phrygian cap[2], the scales and mottoes such as “ça ira” (“it’ll be fine”). These watches were more than mere timekeeping devices; they served as political statements, expressing support for the new republican system and for revolutionary ideals.
Jean-François De Belle, Paris, 1793
This exquisite gilt-brass watch has a full-plate case and a 49 mm front-wound repeating movement, complemented by a verge escapement and a flat three-arm balance. The refinement continues with a steel hairspring and a silvered regulator dial, notable for its precision. The small cock is meticulously decorated with geometric patterns, while the steel upper bearing of the cock gives the whole robustness and distinction.
Further details such as the rim of the front plate, adorned with geometric figures reminiscent of classical pillars, add a touch of refined elegance. The back plate is elegantly engraved with the inscription “De Belle Paris”, bearing witness to the watch’s origin and craftsmanship. The white enamelled copper dial, with bold Arabic numerals, is signed “De Belle À Paris” and secured precisely by a screw at the 12 o’clock position.
Despite the aesthetic harmony on display, the Lépine-style hands, though elegant, may be considered a choice that slightly clashes with the whole, revealing a slight discordance in the stylistic integration of the watch.
Jean-François De Belle set up in business in the Rue Saint-Honoré, in the heart of Paris, where he quickly won a renown that placed him among the prominent makers of his time, and he was frequently mentioned in contemporary almanacs. During the upheavals of the French Revolution, his illustrious reputation earned him a seat on the jury charged with assessing the complex mechanical adaptation of clocks and watches to the new decimal system, inaugurated on 24 November 1793.
The jury, made up of notables such as Jean-Baptiste Lepaute as chairman, Ferdinand Berthoud, Antide Janvier, Jean-Antoine Lépine, Claude Mathieu, as well as the eminent physicist Jacques-Alexandre Charles and the renowned mathematician and astronomer Joseph-Louis Lagrange, after meticulous deliberation, rejected all the proposals on 4 December 1795. The technical difficulty of adapting the intricate mechanisms of clocks and watches to the new decimal system and the commercial challenges associated with the use of sidereal time in other nations led to the end of the decimal time project on 7 April 1795.
This episode not only illustrates the technical and intellectual challenges faced during that period of radical transformation but also highlights the lasting influence of the French Revolution on the evolution of the temporal and technological standards of the time.
Jean-Pierre Gregson, London/Paris, no. 5003, 1793
A watch with a consular case in rose gold and gilt brass, it has front winding and a full-plate fusée movement, with a case diameter of 38.5 mm. Round baluster pillars support a skilfully engraved French-style two-footed balance cock, the English-style ruby endstone having replaced the original French steel upper bearing of the cock. The back plate bears the distinctive inscription “Gregson A Paris No. 5003”.
Originally fitted with a verge escapement, this watch was later converted to an English lever escapement. The balance is meticulously made of polished steel. The enamelled brass dial stands out with red Arabic numerals for the hours and black Arabic numerals for the minutes, following the tradition of the Lépine workshop. The gold beetle and poker hands, of a later style, complement the refined aesthetics of this piece.
The edges of the case are richly decorated in gold, while the back is adorned with appliqués of fruit and leaves in three colours of gold, giving it a distinctly elegant visual appeal.
Built and later modified in London, this watch harmoniously combines French and English design elements. The precision of English engineering, evident in the detached lever escapement, adds a layer of sophistication to its original French execution. This example epitomises the perfect fusion of the European watchmaking tradition with the constant pursuit of technical and aesthetic excellence.
Jean-Pierre Gregson, a native of London, was recognised as watchmaker to the King in Paris in 1776, taking up residence in the prestigious Rue Dauphine. Under the honorary title “Gregson Horloger du Roy à Paris”, he was deeply influenced by Lépine’s renowned work and stood out as one of the pioneers in adopting the Lépine calibre in his creations.
In 1787 he founded a respected manufacture of Braille watches, showing a singular interest in complex escapements and innovative designs. Gregson frequently used cylinder or lever escapements in his elegant pocket watches, with “wolf’s tooth” systems[3] a distinctive feature of many of his works.
Among his notable designs are enamelled gold watches with lever escapement, as well as models with a visible balance wheel and centre seconds, which show his technical skill and refined aesthetics. Gregson was also known for his pocket watches with chronometer escapement, reflecting a constant commitment to precision and innovation.
Jean-Pierre Gregson left a lasting legacy in the watchmaking of his time, combining technical mastery with an avant-garde approach to the design of his sophisticated pocket watches.
In 1790, after the first tumultuous years of the French Revolution, Jean-Pierre Gregson returned to his native city, London, dropping the title “Horloger du Roy” from his signatures. He chose instead to sign occasionally as “Horloger à Paris”. In the vibrant atmosphere of London he set up a new workshop under the simple name “Gregson London”, where he continued to build his reputation for producing watches in the refined French style.
Gregson kept the French numbering system in his works intact, as well as the intermediate signature “Gregson à Paris”, which bore witness to his continuing link with the capital of fashion and design. Between 1800 and 1815 he worked for a time with a distinguished colleague named Jefferson, resulting in a partnership marked by the elegant joint signature “Gregson & Jefferson, London”.
Abraham-Louis Breguet 10.01.1747 – 17.09.1823
Breguet was born in Neuchâtel, Switzerland, the son of Jonas-Louis Breguet and Suzanne-Marguerite Bollein. From an early age he surprised his master with his aptitude and intelligence. To pursue his studies, he attended evening classes in mathematics at the prestigious Collège Mazarin in Paris, under the tutelage of the Abbé Marie, who became a friend and mentor to the young watchmaker.
In 1775, after completing his studies, Breguet obtained permission to marry. Together with his bride, Cécile Marie-Louise L'Huillier, he established their home and the Breguet watchmaking business at the then prestigious address “51 Quai de l'Horloge”, on the Île de la Cité in Paris. Unfortunately, that street number no longer exists, having changed over time as the streets were renumbered.
As Breguet’s reputation grew, he became a friend of the revolutionary leader Jean-Paul Marat, who was also a native of Neuchâtel.
Breguet invented and perfected several innovative mechanisms, including the final development of the tourbillon and the overcoil (an improvement to the balance spring with a raised end, originally invented by John Arnold), and he refined self-winding mechanisms. In less than a decade Breguet had won the admiration of the aristocratic families of France, including Queen Marie Antoinette.
Tragically, his wife died in 1780.
Breguet met Abraham-Louis Perrelet, credited by some as the original inventor of the self-winding mechanism, although modern attribution is often given to the Belgian Hubert Sarton, who presented a design to the Académie Royale des Sciences in Paris on 16 December 1778. Breguet later improved this mechanism and named it the “perpetuelle”.
In 1784 Breguet attained the status of Master Watchmaker. He formed a brief partnership, from 1787 to 1791, with Xavier Gide and his brother. In 1792 the Duke of Orléans visited England, where he met John Arnold, then the leading watchmaker in Europe. He showed Arnold a watch made by Breguet, which deeply impressed him.
Arnold immediately travelled to Paris and asked Breguet to take his son as an apprentice. This meeting marked not only the recognition of Breguet as a master of his art but also the meeting of ideas and innovations between two of the greatest names in watchmaking of the time.
Jacques-Louis David, ‘The death of Marat’, 1793, Royal Museums of Fine Art of Belgium, Brussels
In 1793 Jean-Paul Marat discovered that Breguet had been condemned to the guillotine, possibly because of his friendship with the Abbé Marie or his association with the royal court. In return for having once been saved by Breguet, Marat arranged a safe-conduct, allowing Breguet to flee to Switzerland on 12 August 1793, from where he later travelled to England. That same year, on 13 July 1793, Marat was stabbed in his own home, in his bath, by Charlotte Corday of Caen. Before he died, he cried out to his wife: “Aidez-moi, ma chère amie!” (“Help me, my dear friend!”).
Breguet’s journey to Switzerland included a brief visit to Ferney and Geneva, as well as a long stay in the Neuchâtel and Le Locle region. Afterwards he spent some time in London, where he worked for King George III.
Brass templates for the layout of the different types of movement used in Breguet’s workshop. From Antiquorum, Geneva, Hotel Des Bergues, 12 October 1996, Lot: 317
On 20 April 1795 Breguet returned to Paris, taking advantage of the stabilisation of the political scene in France. He brought with him a series of innovative ideas, improving, for example, the concept of the “Montre à Souscription”. Around 1807 Breguet took his son, Louis-Antoine (born in 1776), into the business, and the firm became known as “Breguet et Fils”. Breguet had sent his son to London to study with the prestigious chronometer maker John Arnold. The friendship and mutual respect between the two master watchmakers were so great that Arnold returned the courtesy by sending his son, John Roger, to study with Breguet.
Breguet produced three series of watches, the highest number reaching 5120. It is therefore estimated that the firm made approximately 17,000 pieces during Breguet’s lifetime. Given this vast output, it is understandable that not every piece was entirely manufactured or finished in-house. Many of the simpler watches, as well as some of the more complex ones, were bought in ready-made, reflecting the demand and the complexity of watch production at the time.
IWM, La Chaux-de-Fonds. Typical Breguet watch case from about 1790 – 1840.
Thanks to meticulous attention to detail and a relentless pursuit of innovation, every Breguet piece is singular and unique in design. His works quickly captured the attention of a wealthy and influential clientele, including figures such as Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette, Louis XVIII, George IV of the United Kingdom, Napoleon Bonaparte, Alexander I of Russia, the Prince of Wales, Joséphine de Beauharnais and the 1st Duke of Wellington.
After he was introduced at court and his art became widely recognised, Queen Marie Antoinette showed an immense fascination with Breguet’s remarkable self-winding watch, influencing Louis XVI of France to acquire several pieces.
Early in his career, Abraham-Louis Breguet mainly used the excellent calibres of Jean-Antoine Lépine, which he masterfully transformed. Later he developed his own calibres, raising the prestige of his creations even further. His watches and chronometers are widely recognised as some of the most beautiful and technically advanced of the period.
The business prospered continuously, and after the death of Abraham-Louis Breguet in 1823 his son, Louis-Antoine, took on the responsibility of carrying on the family legacy, maintaining its reputation for excellence and innovation in the art of watchmaking.
Breguet numbering systems, modified and supplemented from A. Chapiro
From 1775, when he began his independent career, Breguet mainly used prefabricated movements and watches supplied by Lépine’s workshop or by the factory of Gedeon Decombaz in Geneva, a prestigious maker of rough movements. These movements, often associated with Lépine’s, were carefully adjusted and engraved with the mark “Breguet à Paris”, often without a number.
After attaining the status of master watchmaker in 1784 and winning an increasingly distinguished clientele, Breguet introduced a numbering system to record specific manufacturing details and the dates of sale of his watches.
Some of the earliest watches, unnumbered and made before 1784, were kept at various stages of finishing. They were later completed and sold after 1790, receiving corresponding production numbers. Examples of these early but later-numbered pieces include numbers 12, 149, 149bis and 242. This approach not only organises the text clearly but also uses sophisticated language to convey precise and elegant information.
Thomas Tompion first established a numbering system, which was continued by George Graham in England. In France, Julien LeRoy pioneered a system of continuous numbering, followed by Ferdinand Berthoud and Lépine. Breguet, for his part, introduced several numbering systems, which considerably complicates the attribution and dating of his watches. This is because some numbers were reused or never assigned to any specific watch, in addition to the overlapping of sequences between different types of watches, such as the souscription models.
A table details the different numbering systems and the approximate dates they were used throughout Breguet’s production. There are no records of whether Breguet used a different system during his time in Switzerland (August 1793 to April 1795). Furthermore, the numbering system for watches produced outside Breguet’s workshops (Etablissement Mixte de Breguet) is not included in the table. This last numbering system, used in parallel with the third series, was in use from 1806 (number 1) to 1832 (number 2421).
This complexity in numbering reflects the meticulous evolution and expansion of Breguet’s legacy over time, capturing the intricate history behind his exceptional creations.
It is crucial to note that there are no records of any Breguet watch with a production number above 6000. Therefore, any watch bearing the signature “Breguet” and numbered above 5500 should be considered a forgery. Especially during the 19th century, forgeries often made in Switzerland and signed “Breguet à Paris” used serial numbers above 5500.
Below are some examples that illustrate the evolution of Breguet’s developments.
This version keeps the information clear while using more refined and precise language to convey the warning about forgeries and to introduce the representative examples of Breguet watches.
Abraham-Louis Breguet, Paris, 1785
Brass calibre for a full-plate quarter-repeating movement (diameter 47.5 mm), with wheel positions engraved on both sides and pinion holes drilled (front on the left, back of the movement on the right). Each wheel has its number of teeth stamped on it. Quarter-repeating system à toc, with a steel cylinder escapement with 14 teeth.
Although many of Breguet’s early movements were adapted from commercial rough movements (ébauches), the existence of this calibre shows that Breguet also developed his own ébauches in-house. This gave him maximum freedom in the design and optimisation of his movements, contributing significantly to Breguet’s impressive developments.
Ref.: Daniels G., The Art of Breguet, Sotheby Parke Bernet, London, 1974, P.142, Pic. 73 ad, no. 233 3/88, 1st series, 1788.
Abraham-Louis Breguet, Paris, no. 165, 1790
The case of this watch is meticulously made of gold and gilt brass and houses a front-wound full-plate movement with a generous diameter of 49 mm. The three-arm brass balance is complemented by a steel four-cylinder escapement, following the refined English pattern.
A distinctive feature of this example is the way the back plate is fixed to the round pillars, a characteristic common in marine chronometers and high-quality pocket watches. The cock is set with a sapphire, while the escape wheel is mounted separately rather than pivoted between the plates. This inner cock, known as the “potence”, is covered by a sturdy steel structure.
The back plate is a work of art in itself, finely engraved with the inscription “Breguet A PARIS” followed by the number 165, belonging to the second production series. The addition “A PARIS” is characteristic of Breguet watches made up to 1795, adding a touch of authenticity and history to this exceptional piece.
The dial is a masterpiece of art and engineering, made of enamelled copper with a steel protection for the winding hole. The “Breguet” Arabic numerals give it timeless elegance, while the indices are marked with distinctive symbols: “Fleur de Lys” for the five-minute marks and stars for the minutes, exclusive patterns found on Breguet dials up to 1793.
This dial not only displays exceptional functionality but is also a work of art signed in the old “Breguet” script, a style rarely used after 1795, which gives singular authenticity to Breguet’s signature.
The hands are of the flat “Breguet” type, skilfully made of blued steel of the first type, standing out both for their precision and for their aesthetic design.
Two variants of this rare signature style can be seen on dials, distinguished by the peculiar shape of the letter “r”. Watch number 165 shows the same version of the signature found on numbers 17 and 148, all belonging to the 2nd series. The early style of numbering with fractions was gradually abandoned around 1788; number 112, which shows a numbering style similar to that of number 165, dates from 1789. This type of movement seems to derive from commercial movements of “inferior quality” used during Breguet’s collaboration with Xavier Gide. It is one of approximately five surviving examples of this type, the oldest and the only one known as a “montre simple”, without complications.
The finishing of this movement is significantly superior to all other French-style simple movements of this period found to date. Its sophistication and precision match the descriptions given by Xavier Gide of Breguet’s work. Gide considered Breguet’s pace of work excessively slow, as Breguet devoted meticulous attention to details that Gide judged superfluous, preferring instead larger-scale production at a slightly lower quality. This fundamental difference in work ethic and philosophy eventually led to the premature end of their collaboration in 1791.
There is plenty of evidence that Breguet used English steel cylinder escapements in some of his early creations, as exemplified by no. 128 5/85, produced in 1785. During his frequent visits to London in 1790 and 1791, Breguet sought to conclude sales of great importance and took the opportunity to have several of his watches jewelled, with sapphires for instance. It is plausible that this movement is one of those pieces taken to England to be jewelled. At that time the art of jewelling was not highly developed among French watchmakers, and the best jewels were supplied by English specialists. Breguet later perfected the cylinder escapement[4], incorporating trapezoidal pallets, to adapt it to his version of the ruby cylinder system.
English influence:
In watch no. 165, the English-style cock, the use of an English-type steel cylinder escapement and the screwed back plate reflect the close exchange between Abraham-Louis Breguet and English watchmakers such as John Arnold of London. Many of the early watches produced in Breguet’s workshop show the profound influence of English watchmaking. Breguet visited London repeatedly, beginning in 1785 and again in 1790 and 1791. Forced to leave France in 1793, he worked in London for a while after his stay in Switzerland, where he was taken in by Jacques-Frédéric Houriet in Le Locle.
John Roger Arnold, son of John Arnold, was apprenticed to Breguet between 1792 and 1794. Likewise, Louis-Antoine Breguet, son of Abraham-Louis Breguet, was apprenticed to John Arnold. This exchange of knowledge and techniques between Breguet and the English watchmakers resulted in a fusion of styles and technical advances, clearly reflected in the details and quality of the watches Breguet produced during this period.
Mutual Influence between Breguet and English Watchmakers:
Breguet, and to some extent Lépine before him, adopted and improved several innovations of the English watchmakers. Among the most notable influences are:
Large chronometers: John Harrison, John Arnold, Thomas Earnshaw and others.
Cylinder escapement: George Graham.
Lever escapement: Thomas Mudge.
Temperature compensation for helical springs: John Harrison.
Ruby cylinder escapement: John Arnold.
Tourbillon: John Arnold.
Balance compensation: John Arnold.
Jewelling: John Arnold and others.
Balance-spring winding system: John Arnold.
Later, English watchmakers also adopted French features, mainly from Lépine and Breguet:
Bridge calibre: Lépine.
Aesthetics and layout of the bridges: Breguet.
Parachute[5]: Breguet.
Engine-turned metal dials: Breguet, adopted from John Arnold.
“Breguet” hands: Lépine/Breguet.
Repeating system on gongs: Breguet.
This exchange of techniques and innovations resulted in an enriching fusion of French and English watchmaking styles, demonstrating the collaboration and mutual influence that characterised the development of watchmaking in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.
Abraham-Louis Breguet, Paris, no. 203, 1792
Gilt-Brass Full-Plate Watch with Quarter-Repeating Movement.
It has a quarter-repeating mechanism à toc, fitted with a ruby cylinder escapement, a flat three-arm balance, a steel helical spring with regulator and a compensation curb under the balance, as well as fusée and chain. The rim of the front plate is finely engraved with “BREGUET A PARIS No. 203” (2nd series), and the back plate bears the same inscription.
The dial is made of white enamelled copper, adorned with the elegant cursive “Breguet” signature used until 1795. The back of the enamel is signed by hand “Cave Place Dauphine”. The hands are the classic flat blued-steel “Breguet” hands, and the case is gold, added later.
This traditional repeating movement, driven by chain and pulley, had been perfected by Julien Le Roy almost half a century earlier. Such movements were used between 1795 and 1800, representing a transitional stage between the pre-1787 type (conventional calibre with pump-pendant winding, pulley and chain) and the “new calibre” (produced from 1790 to 1815, with a single hammer à toc, like No. 726, for the hours and fractions of the hour), which eventually replaced them.
This piece is a testament to the technical and aesthetic progress of watchmaking in the late 18th century, exemplifying the transition from traditional methods to Breguet’s innovative developments.
Ex private collection A. Chapiro (F)
Published in: Chapiro A., Taschenuhren aus vier Jahrhunderten, Callwey, Munich, 1995, P: 223 – 225, Fig.: 474, 476, 477, 47
Abraham-Louis Breguet, Paris, no. 234, 1793
This watch is distinguished by its silvered and gilt-brass consular case, with a full plate and a front-wound repeating movement à toc, with a diameter of 49 mm. Fitted with a verge escapement and a flat three-arm balance, it has a steel hairspring with a silvered regulator dial, as well as fusée and chain. The small cock bears geometric decoration and a steel cock. The rim of the front plate is engraved “BREGUET A PARIS No. 234” (2nd series), an inscription repeated on the rim of the back plate.
The white enamelled copper dial bears the old cursive “Breguet” signature in gold, used until 1795. This dial is fixed by a screw and a pin in the rim. Gilt Arabic numerals indicate the hours, with black minute markings and date numbers arranged anticlockwise. As a distinctive touch, every second date number is replaced by a star. The enamel on the back is signed by hand “(P) Dauphine 1793”, together with the movement number “234”. The Place Dauphine was known as the place where the enamellers, often employed by Breguet and other watchmakers of the Île de la Cité, carried out the enamelling of dials. Most dials bear no inscriptions on the back of the enamel. The blued-steel hands have been restored, preserving the original elegance of the design.
The watch uses a conventional repeating mechanism, wound by chain and pulley, a system perfected by Julien Le Roy almost half a century earlier. This type of movement was widely used before 1795 and represents a slight modification of commercial repeating movements. It exemplifies the earliest phase of development, still using the pre-1787 calibre, with pump-pendant winding, pulley and chain. This phase evolved into an intermediate calibre, like the one seen in watch no. 203, and later into the “nouveau calibre”, as in example no. 726, produced between 1790 and 1815. This last calibre introduced a single hammer à toc to strike the hours and fractions of the hour, replacing the earlier, more complex versions.
This early repeating movement probably comes from the commercial stock supplied by Xavier Gide. Like other examples based on conventional commercial pieces, such as no. 165, the finishing of this movement stands out for its extraordinary quality compared with contemporary pieces made in other workshops. This movement is larger than, but of the same type as, the repeating movement used in no. 179, sold to Marie Antoinette in 1792. Moreover, no. 234 was built only a few months before Breguet had to flee Paris for Switzerland on 12 August 1793.
The use of gold numerals and signature on the dial was also a prominent feature on the dials of other makers. This style was first introduced by Jean-Antoine Lépine. Only one other Breguet watch of this style is known, with gold numerals and signature on the enamel dial (no. 231, sold at Antiquorum Geneva on 14 April 1991, lot 4, catalogue P.: 24, 25). This latter watch, whose construction is almost identical to the movement shown above, helps further to date no. 234, as it was recorded in Breguet’s books on 2 January 1793.
Another similar piece, shown in A. Chapiro’s book “Taschenuhren aus vier Jahrhunderten” (P.: 219, 220, Pic.: 464, 465), proved to be a contemporary forgery.
A different and later watch, a quarter repeater, no. 1899, also has gilt Arabic numerals, indices and the signature “BREGUET ET FILS”; it was sold in 1806 to the Duke of Newcastle.
Breguet’s date complication:
The anticlockwise arrangement of the date numbers is a hallmark of Breguet’s early creations, showing his unique ability to combine function with aesthetic innovation. In this particular example, the movement is fitted with a concentric date and front winding, with the date hand resting at the “0” mark, allowing the owner to move it by hand to “1”. To make sure the owner did not forget to set the date, the “0” mark was cleverly placed over the winding hole. Thus, when winding the watch, a daily ritual for most owners, the date hand had to be moved out of the way of the winding hole, setting itself automatically to the “1” position.
This system, at once simple and ingenious, exemplifies the combination of practicality and innovation that characterises Breguet’s inventions. Meticulous attention to detail and a relentless pursuit of technical perfection allowed Breguet to create mechanisms that not only improved the watch’s functionality but also raised the user’s experience to a new level of convenience and precision.
Abraham-Louis Breguet, Paris, 1795
This two-part brass test piece, 35.5 mm in diameter, is a moon-phase subdial intended for an eight-day travel clock, such as models no. 178 or 179. The index is meticulously divided into 15 sectors, each subdivided into thirds, a refined configuration that later evolved into 6 sectors subdivided into quarters in the final version. Each sector and sub-sector is marked by drilled round shapes filled with black ink, adding a touch of elegance and functionality to the dial. The rotating disc shows two circles representing the moon, each with an arrow at the top to point to the index, providing a clear visual representation of the lunar phases in the context of the travel clock.
Ref.: Daniels G., The Art of Breguet, Sotheby Parke Bernet, London, 1974, P.164, Pic. 115 ad, no. 179, 3rd series, sold in 1804
Subscription Watch
Houriet’s version of the ‘souscription’ watch, 1777. Taken and modified from: Sabrier JC, Frédéric Houriet, Editions Simonin, 2006. Interpretation of Houriet’s drawings by Georges Rigot. Reconstruction drawings by Bernard Müller.
The prototype of the “souscription” watch was conceived in 1777 by the Swiss watchmaker Jacques-Frédéric Houriet. In his manuscripts Houriet detailed the development and construction of this watch, setting out all the fundamentals that Abraham-Louis Breguet would later improve. The single-hand watch, built with as few parts as possible, was rather bulky. After selling about 100 of them at a market in Zurzach, Switzerland, Houriet did not pursue the refinement of the design.
Houriet probably shared his idea with Abraham-Louis Breguet, who was a regular visitor to Houriet in Le Locle. Breguet began developing and refining the “souscription” watch around 1791. The first experimental versions still reflected much of Houriet’s original design. During his exile in Switzerland, around 1794, Breguet continued to develop the “souscription” watch, probably with the collaboration of his friend and host, Houriet. After returning to Paris in 1795, Breguet resumed the construction of these watches.
“Souscription” watches were designed to contain as few components as possible, so as to make them affordable to a less wealthy clientele. The payment model consisted of two instalments, with 25% of the price paid on ordering and the rest on receipt of the watch. However, the final cost of the watches ranged between 550 and 900 francs, the equivalent of a year’s wages for a worker at the time, which paradoxically made them unaffordable for the less privileged public.
The Dial
The dials of “souscription” watches show a unique sophistication and a variety of materials and styles over the years:
Materials and Early Design: Usually made of enamelled copper, these dials have Arabic numerals and five-minute intervals, allowing the time to be read precisely to the minute. In some smaller versions the dial is of engine-turned silver or gold, and during the 19th century many enamel dials were replaced by engine-turned versions, which always use Roman numerals.
Methods of Fixing: The earliest versions of the dials were fixed by screws or pins at the back of the watch. In later versions this fixing was simplified to a single screw located near 12 or 6 o’clock, reflecting an evolution in design and functionality.
Position and Style of the Signature: The position and style of the signature varied over time. In earlier versions the signature was placed below the 12 or above the 6, in cursive or in Roman capitals. In later versions the signature was moved to the edge of the dial. From 1796, to combat forgeries, a secret signature was introduced below the 12 on almost all enamel dials. This secret signature, “Souscription, No 267 Breguet”, was made with a pantograph, providing an additional layer of authenticity and security.
The meticulous detail and constant evolution in the design of the dials of “souscription” watches reflect Breguet’s dedication to precision, aesthetics and innovation, qualities that define his horological masterpiece.
The Hand
One of the most distinctive features of this watch is its single hand, which indicates both the hours and the minutes, doing away with the need for a separate minute hand. This hand is made of blued steel, a material traditionally valued in watchmaking for its durability and resistance to corrosion.
The design of the hand follows the classic “Breguet” style, known for its elegance and functionality. The tip of the hand is exceptionally long, making it easier to read the time precisely. In many versions the tip has a small “boss” of varying shape, a detail not present in the oldest models or in late replacements.
There are a few rare exceptions in which the hand is straight and does not follow the traditional “Breguet” style. These straight hands are found only on smaller watches, giving them a unique and distinctive appearance.
This simplification, using only one hand, not only reduces the complexity of the watch’s internal movement but also reflects Breguet’s philosophy of combining functionality and aesthetics with technical innovation.
The case
Early Experimental Versions
The early experimental versions of the “souscription” watches had a silver or gold case, without a dust cover, with a pump pendant typical of the late 18th century and an oval bow. The pump pendant, used to set the hands and wind the movement, was designed to be robust and practical, reflecting the functional and aesthetic design of the period.
Intermediate Examples
The intermediate examples kept the same basic shape but introduced a gilt front and back bezel, combined with a silvered case, still without a dust cover. At this stage the pendant evolved into a short ball pierced by a round bow, adding a touch of sophistication to the design.
Later Versions
In the later versions a predominantly gilt case became standard, still without a dust cover. The ball-shaped pendant with round bow also became established as a characteristic feature of these models. The back of the cases could be plain or engine-turned, a decorative finish that added an extra level of elegance and aesthetic complexity.
19th-Century Modifications
During the 19th century many “souscription” watch cases were replaced. The original cases were probably removed because of wear or because they were out of fashion, and replaced by silver versions, sturdier and more resistant to the passage of time. These replacements, although they alter the originality of the examples, preserve the essence and functionality of the watches, preserving Breguet’s horological heritage.
This careful development and evolution of the cases of “souscription” watches exemplify continuous innovation and adaptation to the aesthetic and functional preferences of the time, reflecting Breguet’s incomparable skill in combining tradition and modernity in watchmaking.
The Movement of the Souscription Watch
“Souscription” watches are predominantly large, with movements measuring 56.5 mm in diameter, while the overall diameter of the watches is 62.2 mm. However, there are also some intermediate and smaller types. The design of the “souscription” watches is particularly well suited to demonstrating the technical and aesthetic development of Breguet’s watches.
Varieties of Souscription Movements:
There are five different types of “souscription” watch movements. Below is a summary of the development of these movements, excluding a prototype (no. 15, third series), which has a more “primitive” appearance and is not illustrated. Basically, the movements can be grouped into two experimental phases and two intermediate phases, culminating in the final version.
Early Experimental Types:
These movements represent Breguet’s first efforts to create a simplified and efficient watch. They incorporate basic elements and are characterised by the attempt to minimise the number of components.
Intermediate Movements
First Intermediate Phase:
In this phase Breguet begins to refine the design, introducing improvements in both the precision and the durability of the movement.
Second Intermediate Phase:
The movements of this phase are more sophisticated, showing significant advances in technique and aesthetics. The engineering begins to approach the quality that will be seen in the final version.
Drawings of rear views of the existing types of subscription movement. The development runs from left to right. The back plate or bridges are yellow, the balance is blue.
In the next article we will continue with the history of Breguet’s “subscription watches”.
George Brown
Edward Brown, born in Clerkenwell, England, served as foreman in the Breguet workshop until 1870, when he rose to the position of head of the Breguet firm, of which he had become a partner.
Under his leadership, the prestigious watchmaking house became known as Maison Breguet in 1881, maintaining an unwavering standard of high-quality production. Edward Brown, a visionary in the field of watchmaking, died in 1895 at the age of 66, leaving a legacy of excellence and innovation.
After his passing, the company was run in turn by his sons, Edward and Henry. Edward retired at the beginning of the 20th century, handing the main responsibility to Henry, who showed remarkable skill in managing the business.
In 1927 George Brown, Henry’s son, succeeded his father, proving to be not only a competent leader but also a guardian of the family’s legacy of excellence in the art of watchmaking.
George Brown developed a friendship with George Daniels, whose first meeting dates back to the early 1960s. Daniels was an expert in Breguet watches and the brand’s agent in London. Brown was struggling to find skilled watchmakers capable of producing meticulously handmade watches. He then turned to Daniels, who had already made a hand-made replica of a Breguet watch. Impressed by Daniels’s work, Brown became aware of his ambition to make his own watches. However, Daniels declined the offer to produce watches for Breguet.
The Brown family moved the Breguet premises several times until about 1933, when they settled in the Place Vendôme. During this period they acquired several notable items, some of which are shown here.
Many of these artefacts were auctioned by Patrizzi & Co. and by Chayette & Cheval.
The manuscripts written by Abraham-Louis Breguet, which George Brown kept in a cardboard box, were sold for 2.1 million dollars at Patrizzi & Co. in Geneva in May 2010.
Today these precious documents are on display at the Breguet Museum in Paris.
Notes:
[1] “18 Germinal Year III” refers to a date in the French Republican Calendar, which was introduced during the French Revolution to replace the Gregorian calendar. This calendar had different months and names, as well as a system of counting years starting from the establishment of the First French Republic on 22 September 1792. “Germinal” was the name of the seventh month of the year in the Republican Calendar, corresponding approximately to the period between 21 March and 19 April in the Gregorian calendar. “Year III” means the third year since the beginning of the First Republic, that is, 1794-1795.
Therefore, “18 Germinal Year III” corresponds to 7 April 1795 in the Gregorian calendar.
[2] The Phrygian cap is a type of conical cap, usually red, with its tip bent forward. It is a historical symbol of liberty and revolution. During the French Revolution the Phrygian cap was adopted as an emblem of the revolutionaries and frequently associated with the ideals of liberty, equality and fraternity. It goes back to ancient Phrygia, in the region that is now part of Turkey, where it was worn by freed slaves as a symbol of emancipation. In the French Revolution the Phrygian cap became a republican icon, symbolising the struggle against oppression and the monarchy.
[3] “Wolf’s tooth” is a term used in watchmaking to describe a specific type of gearing or toothed wheel. These wheels have wedge-shaped teeth, wider at one end and tapering towards the other, similar to a wolf’s teeth.
In watchmaking practice, wolf’s teeth are designed to minimise friction and improve the efficiency of the watch movement, providing a smooth and precise transmission of energy between the wheels. This type of design can be found in different parts of watch mechanisms, especially in components such as escape wheels and other transmission wheels.
[4] In the context of the cylinder escapement, trapezoidal pallets are small trapezium-shaped surfaces that come into contact with the teeth of the escape wheel. They play a crucial role in converting the rotary motion of the escape wheel into the oscillating motion of the balance, which is essential for accurate timekeeping.
The trapezoidal shape of these pallets helps to ensure smooth and efficient contact with the teeth of the escape wheel, minimising wear and friction, which contributes to the durability and precision of the escapement.
[5] In watchmaking, the term “Pare-chute” refers to a shock-protection system developed by Abraham-Louis Breguet in 1790. This system was one of the first forms of protection against impacts used in watches. It consisted of small spring arms that held the balance pivots in place, allowing them to move slightly in the event of an impact, absorbing the shock and reducing the risk of the pivots breaking.
The “Pare-chute” was a significant innovation at the time, as it increased the durability and precision of watches, especially in situations where they might be subjected to sudden movements or falls. This invention of Breguet’s is an example of the innovative and detailed approach to watchmaking, which combined refined aesthetics with technical advances.
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